Cognitive Psychology The Mind As An Information Processor

Though we may not realize it nor want to acknowledge it, Cognitive Psychology is a part of every human s daily life. Cognitive Psychology is the scientific study of the mind as an information processor. In a simpler definition, it is the study of how our minds interpret and process things that we either are informed of or something we take into thought. Cognitive Psychology is a part of our attention process, language use, our memory for both long and short term, perception, problem solving, creativity, and the way we think. Each of these different features are a part of how we perceive information, think, remember, and use the information we gather. Through this branch of psychology, researchers are able to observe the relationship†¦show more content†¦Neisser wrote the first published book on Cognitive Psychology in the year of 1967. This book revealed his research on new-found information on how people learn, the structure of the brain and how we think, how the brain stor es knowledge, and how humans use knowledge. Neisser was concerned that cognitive psychology was starting to become distant from reality. Therefore, he suggested that cognitive psychologist redirect their interested attention and pay more attention to the world in which cognition is lively occurring. A few more important figures in our society to the cognition world would be Aaron Beck, Albert Ellis, and Walter Mischel. Beck was a developer of cognitive therapy by which is now used to help disorders that vary from depression, panic attacks, eating disorders, and even addictions. Becks therapy fell right into the works of Ellis, who created behavioral therapy to help like rational-emotive therapy.Then, Mischel took both of these therapies and combined their theories to focus on personality formation and the issues with the conscious. 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The Film American History X - 1248 Words

The film American History X begins with an average American middle-class family; four well-behaved children and two all-American parents living in Long Beach, California. The father is killed in a shooting, leaving his eldest son, Derek, the head of the household. Derek becomes enveloped in Neo-Nazi culture from the end of his adolescent years into early adulthood, and he becomes the leader of a gang. At this point, his younger brother, Danny, is an adolescent and begins mimicking his older brother’s behavior. But the turning point of the movie is when Derek is convicted for murdering a black man and serves three years in prison. This film is primarily an example of moral growth, ontological shock, and choosing what kind of influence one wants to project onto others. Derek realizes that he is going to be held accountable for all of the viewpoints he has â€Å"endorsed† to others, that with drastic actions come drastic consequences, and that autonomy is a powerful force when fueled with willpower. The importance of social influence is a strong theme to American History X, which is why I think Lev Vygostky’s socio-cultural theories surrounding cognitive development can explain the film’s meaning well. According to Vygotsky, the interactions a person has between the environment and other human beings determines the learning that takes place. The type of environment that a child grows up in also greatly affects a person throughout life, as well. Vygostky also believed that tutorsShow MoreRelatedPrejudice in the Film American History X1422 Words   |  6 Pagesno one is free from it. In the film, American History X, Derek is a great example of how prejudice someone can be. 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Jim Craddock has stated that the film â€Å"falls short

Skeletal, Muscular Articular Systems Free Essays

string(133) " points of attachment for muscles that are responsible for moving the upper limbs; mobility is high as these girdles are very light\." |Skeletal, Articular and Muscular Systems | |Human Anatomy Physiology Assignment 6 | |A short study of the human bodies skeletal, muscular and joint types. | Contents Task 12 Task 23 Task 3a8 Task 3b0 Task 4a10 Task 5a10 Task 6a11 Task 6b14 References16 Pictures/Figures16 Task 1 Task 1A A patient with a bone mineral density T-score of -2. We will write a custom essay sample on Skeletal, Muscular Articular Systems or any similar topic only for you Order Now 7 would be suffering from osteoporosis. †¢ Normal BMD, T-score -1 SD †¢ Osteopenia, T-score between -1 -2. 5 SD †¢ Osteoporosis, T-score -2. SD †¢ Severe Osteoporosis, T-score -2. 5 SD with associated fractures. [1] Task 1B Key hormones associated with bone formation in men/women are PTH (parathyroid hormone) produced by the parathyroid glands, and Calcitonin produced by C-cells. In children, HGH is important and is most involved in epiphyseal plate activity; in adolescents the sex hormones testosterone and oestrogen play an important role in bone growth, growth hormone (HGH) is modulated by the activity of the thyroid hormones, ensuring that the skeleton has proper proportions as it is growing. Later in adolescence, the sex hormones testosterone and oestrogen induce epiphyseal plate closure in the long bones; an excess of growth hormone during this development phase can lead to gigantism, while a deficiency of HGH and/or the thyroid hormones would produce dwarfism. Low blood levels of ionic calcium will stimulate the release of PTH; in turn stimulating osteoclasts to resorb bone and thus releasing more calcium to the blood. Osteoclasts will break down both old and new bone matrices, osteoid escapes assimilation due to its lack of calcium salts. Read Renal System Physiology Physioex Rising levels of blood calcium will end the stimulus of PTH, declining levels of PTH will reverse these effects; causing the level of blood Ca2+ to fall, calcitonin only has a negligible effect on calcium homeostasis in humans. (Marieb Hoehn, 2010, pp. 185-86) Task 1C The major supplements used to help sufferers of osteoporosis are calcium and vitamin D, aim for at least 700mg of calcium from food/drink intake; when using calcium and vitamin D to help osteoporosis then a formulation prescribed by a doctor should be sought. Most over the counter calcium/vitamin D supplements do not contain the correct amount and ratio of calcium/vitamin D, to help treat osteoporosis a formulation containing 1. 2g of calcium and 800iu of vitamin D[2] should be taken. (NHS , 2011) Other good dietary sources of calcium are small fish (with bones – sardines/pilchards), low-fat dairy products and dark green leafy vegetables (broccoli/cabbage/okra) as are tofu (soya) and nuts. (NHS, 2011) Good dietary sources of vitamin D include all oily fish, eggs; fortified spreads and liver. It is also important to get the appropriate amount of sunlight, as the UVB rays penetrate skin where they are converted into pre-vitamin D3 by cutaneous 7-dehydrocholesterol. Aim for at least 5-30 minutes per day of UVB during the hours of 10am to 3pm, to the legs; face; back and arms for sufficient vitamin D production; cloud cover and darker skin tones will reduce the available UVB. (USA. Gov, 2011) Task 1D High impact sports, such as running; weight training; walking; aerobic exercise and squash are all good for increasing BMD, low impact sports such as swimming and cycling have no positive effect on BMD. Exercise regimes should be undertaken at least twice per week, preferably three times p/w of 30 minutes or more, and of course should be supervised by a qualified individual. The level of intensity should be low at the start of the regimen, increasing the number of repetitions and/or weight over time. Any BMD gains achieved would be lost if the exercise regime is stopped, and thus regular face-to-face contact is important to help foster a positive mental attitude. (Todd Robinson, 2003) Individuals suffering from osteoporosis should be careful when undertaking vigorous high impact exercise, due to the weakness of the skeletal system; most importantly, an active lifestyle coupled with regular exercise should be followed to help combat osteoporosis in advancing years. Task 2 Task 2A – Axial Skeleton Eighty bones separated to form three regions (skull, vertebral column thoracic cage) make up the structure of the axial skeleton. The parts of the axial skeleton form the longitudinal axis of the body, protect the brain/spinal cord and support the neck/head/trunk. The skull formed of the cranial and facial bones is an exceptionally complex bony structure; the skull serves as a compound for the frail brain, and has connection positions for the head/neck muscles. The vertebral column comprises of 26 asymmetrical bones connected to form a curved flexible structure that supports the trunk; extending from the skull to the pelvis the vertebral column transmits weight to the lower limbs. Providing attachment points for the muscles of the neck/back and for the ribs, it also acts as protection for the spinal column. The thorax, more commonly known as the chest consists of thoracic vertebrae; ribs; sternum and costal cartilages that secure the ribs onto the sternum. Forming a protective cage around vital organs, the thorax has a rough cone shape that is quite broad; the thorax also supports the shoulder girdles; upper limbs and provides the muscles of the back/neck/shoulders and chest with connection points. (Marieb Hoehn, 2010, pp. 199,216) Task 2A – Appendicular Skeleton The appendicular skeleton is made up of the limbs and their girdles, the appendicular skeleton is appended to the axial skeleton; hence the name appendicular. The upper limbs attached via a yoke like girdle (pectoral) to the trunk of the body; and the lower limbs secured by the pelvic girdle. The bones of the upper/lower limbs have different functionalities and mobility, but still have the same essential plane; that the limbs are constituted of three key divisions linked via alterable joints. The appendicular skeletal structure allows us movement such as taking a step, picking up a cup or kicking a ball. The pectoral girdle is comprised of an anterior clavicle and a posterior scapula; the shoulders formed from the associated muscles and the paired pectoral girdles. Attaching the upper limbs to the axial skeleton, the pectoral girdles also present points of attachment for muscles that are responsible for moving the upper limbs; mobility is high as these girdles are very light. You read "Skeletal, Muscular Articular Systems" in category "Papers" The upper limbs form from 30 bones, each bone described locally as a bone of the hand, arm or forearm; the arm is considered in an anatomical sense to be the upper limb between the shoulder and elbow. The lower limbs attach to the axial skeleton via the pelvic girdle and diffuse the weight of the upper body to the lower limbs, and provide support for the pelvic visceral organs. Some of the strongest ligaments in the body attach the pelvic girdle to the axial skeleton, the pelvic girdle is very stable but lacks the mobility of the pectoral girdle; carrying the weight of the body the lower limbs are subject to astonishing forces. Compared to the bones of the upper limbs, the bones of the lower limbs are much thicker and stronger. (Marieb Hoehn, 2010, pp. 223,233,237) Task 2b – Axial/Appendicular Attachments The thoracic cage is thinly attached to the pectoral girdle, not like the pelvic girdle that is affixed to the axial skeleton by some incredible strong ligaments, some of the strongest in the body. The sockets of the pelvic girdle are deep and cuplike, the femur head is secured firmly in place in these sockets, the pectoral girdle is far more moveable but the pelvic girdle is much more table. The shoulders are formed from the paired pectoral girdles and their associated muscles, a girdle usually refers to a belt like structure that encircles the body, however in the case of the pectoral girdles this does not satisfy the said description. The medial end of each clavicle is joined anteriorly to the sternum and the distal ends encounter the scapulae laterally. The scapulae do not perfect the girdle posteriorly, as their medial rims fail to join to each other or to the axial skeleton, however the scapulae attach to the thorax and the vertebral column via muscles that garb their exteriors. The upper limbs are attached to the axial skeleton via the pectoral girdles and also provide connection points for the upper limb muscles. The girdles are light and this allows a freedom of movement that is not accomplished elsewhere in the body, as only the clavicle fastens to the axial skeleton, this allows the scapulae to move easily across the thorax. The hip joint being a ball and socket joint has a good range of motion; however, the shoulder has a wider range of motion. The joints strong ligaments limit movements, but do occur in all planes. Formed from the articulation of the femurs spherical head and the greatly cupped acetabulum of the hipbone is the hip joint. A circular lip of fibrocartilage (Acetabulor labrum) enhances the depth of the acetabulum; the diameter of the labrum is smaller than the head of the femur making for a snug fit of these articular surfaces; dislocations of the hip are a rare incident. Extending from the brim of the acetabulum up to the stem of the femur, the heavy articular casing wholly surrounds the joint; there are several robust ligaments that reinforce the hip joint capsule. These ligaments include the iliofemoral ligament, an anteriorly placed v-shaped ligament, and the pubofemoral, which is a triangular condensing of the lesser fragment of the capsule, and the ischiofemoral ligament that is a coiling posterior ligament. On either side of the pelvic girdle, the iliolumbar ligament connects the pelvis and vertebral columns. (Marieb Hoehn, 2010, pp. 225-226,233,267) Ligaments of the pelvic girdle: Iliolumbar ligament ? Anterior Sacroiliac ligament ? Sacrospinus ligament ? Sacrotuberous ligament ? Pubofemoral ligament ? Iliofemoral ligament ? Ischiofemoral ligament ? Sacroiliac ligament ? Ischiofemoral ligament ? Ligamentum teres Ligaments of the thoracic girdle: ? Capsular ligament ? Coracoclavicular ligament ? Costoclavicular ligament ? Coracohumeral ligamen t ? Glenohumeral ligament Task 2c – Lordosis, Kyphosis, Scoliosis Cervical and lumbar secondary curvatures being convex anteriorly, are associated with a Childs development, this is a result of reshaping of the intervertebral discs and not from modification of the vertebrae. The cervical curvature being present at birth does not become distinct until 3 months when the baby will start to raise its head, whereas the lumbar curvature will develop when the baby begins to walk. During the early childhood years the vertebral problems of scoliosis or lordosis may appear as rapid growth of the long bones stretches muscles, lordosis is most often present during preschool years but is more often than not remedied when the abdominal muscle strengthen. This firming up tilts forward the pelvis and the thorax widens, thus developing the military posture in adolescence. At the onset of old-age many parts of the skeleton are affected, principally the spine; the discs thin and loose elasticity and hydration resulting in a probable rise in disc herniation, at 55 years old it’s not uncommon to have a loss of up to several centimetres in stature. Osteoporosis can produce further shortening of the spine as can kyphosis, in the elderly this is referred to as a dowager’s hump, with age the thorax develops rigidity due to ossification of the costal cartilage, thus resulting in shallow breathing from a loss of rib cage elasticity. Abnormal spine curvatures, of which some are congenital and some resulting from muscle weakness, disease and bad posture. In the thoracic region of the spine, an abnormal lateral curvature is referred to as scoliosis (twisted disease) most often presenting during adolescence and more common in girls. Scoliosis can also be a result of muscle paralysis, unequal lower limbs (length) or severe abnormal vertebra structure, non-functioning muscles on one side of the spine will cause the muscles of the opposite side to exert an unopposed pull; forcing the spine into a misaligned position. Body braces and/or surgery are used to treat scoliosis during childhood and thus preventing a permanent deformity. Scoliosis can also cause breathing difficulties, due to the nature of the disease a compressed lung in not unusual. Kyphosis, often referred to as hunchback, is a thoracic curvature that is dorsally exaggerated; very common due to osteoporosis in elderly people and can also reflect rickets, osteomalacia or tuberculosis of the spine. An accentuated curvature of the lumbar vertebrae is called Lordosis (swayback), this too can be caused by spinal tuberculosis or osteomalacia. Lordosis can also be caused in a temporary form by carrying a heavy frontal load, a pregnant woman being one example. These individuals will usually pushback their shoulders in order to preserve their centre of gravity, this of course emphasises the lumbar arch. (Marieb Hoehn, 2010, pp. 217,243-244) Task 3a Structural Class |Structural |Types |Type of Mobility | | |Characteristics | | | |Fibrous[3] |Articulating bones joined by |Sutures (Short Fibres) |Child/Limited | | |fibrous connective tissue. |Adult/Synarthrosis | | | |Syndesmosis (Longer Fibres) | | | | | |Amphiarthrosis/Immobile | | | |Gomphosis (Periodontal Ligament) |Immobile | |Cartilaginous[4] | |Synchondrosis (Hyaline Cartilage) |Immobile | | |Articulating bones joined by | | | | |fibrocartilage or hyaline | | | | |cartilage. | | | | | |Symphysis (Fibrocartilage) |Slight Movement | |Synovial[5] |Joint capsule containing synovial |Plane |Nonaxial | | |membrane and synovial fluid. | | | | |Hinge |Uniaxial | | | |Pivot |Atlantoaxial | | | |Condyloid |Biaxial | | | |Saddle |Biaxial | | | |Ball Socket |Multiaxial | Task 4a |Characteristic |Skeletal |Cardiac |Smooth | | |Attached to bones, facial muscle skin. |Walls of the heart. Single unit muscle in walls of hollow | |Location | | |visceral organs (other than the heart) | | | | |multiunit muscle in intrinsic eye muscles, | | | | |airways large arteries. | | |Single, very long, cylindrical, |Branching chains of cells; uni-|Single, fusiform, uninucleate; no | |Shape and appearance |multinucleate cells with obvious |or binucleate; striations. |striations. | | |striations. | | | | |Epimysium, perimysium and endomysium. |Endomysium attached to fibrous |Endomysium. |Connective Tissue components | |skeleton of heart. | | | |Voluntary via axon terminals of the |Involuntary, intrinsic system |Involuntary; autonomic n erves; hormones, | |Regulation of contraction |somatic nervous system. |regulation; also autonomic |local chemicals; stretch. | | | |nervous system controls; | | | | |hormones; stretch. | | | Slow to fast |Slow |Very slow | |Speed of contraction | | | | | |No |Yes |Yes, in single unit muscle | |Rhythmic contraction | | | | Task 5a The classification of muscles falls into four purposeful groups: prime movers (agonists), antagonists, synergists and fixators. A prime mover or agonist is a muscle that has the chief responsibility of producing an explicit undertaking, for instance the biceps brachii is the fleshy muscle of the anterior arm that is the agonist of elbow flexion. An antagonist is a muscle that opposes the movements of agonists, an active agonist will result in a stretched or relaxed antagonist; however, antagonists usually help to regulate movement of the agonist with a slight tightening to provide resistance to slow or stop movement as not to overshoot the mark. Agonists and antagonists are located opposite each other on the joint of which they act, antagonists can also work as agonists and one example of this is the biceps brachii causing flexion of the forearm that is antagonised by the triceps brachii, the agonist for forearm extension. In supplement to the agonists and antagonists, the majority of muscle movements also involve synergists, synergists work alongside agonists to add extra force to movements or they work to reduce detrimental movements that can arise when the agonists move. (Marieb Hoehn, 2010, p. 321) Task 5b |Elbow Flexion |Elbow Extension |Pronation |Supination | |Biceps brachii (Prime mover) |Triceps brachii (Prime mover) |Pronator teres |Biceps brachii | |Brachialis (Prime mover) |Anconeus |Pronator quadratus (Prime mover) |Supinator | |Pronator teres (Weak) | Brachioradialis | Task 5c Biceps brachii, Brachialis, Brachioradialis Task 5d Triceps brachii, Anconeus Task 5e Triceps brachii, Anconeus Task 5f Biceps brachii, Brachialis, Brachioradialis Task 6a Contraction refers to the activation of myosin cross bridges, these bridges are the force generating sites; when the tension is generated then contracting occurs through the cross bridges of the thin filaments, this force must surpass forces oppo sed to shortening; this then pulls filaments toward the m-line. When tension declines and the cross bridges inactivate, then contraction ends thus inducing relaxation in the muscle fibre. In the sliding filament model of contraction, thin filaments will slide past thick filaments, and as a result, the actin[6] and myosin[7] strands will overlap to a larger gradation. Relaxed muscle fibres only have thick and thin fibres overlapping at the tips of the a-bonds, stimulation of the muscles fibres by the nervous system activates the myosin heads of the thick filaments to clasp onto the myosin fastening position on the actin of the thin filaments, and this process begins sliding. [8] In the course of contraction, these cross bridge connections are forced/broken numerous times, the attachments act like miniscule ratchets in order to create pressure and thus impel the thin filaments further toward the sarcomeres centre. This contraction event occurs concurrently throughout all sarcomeres in a cell shortening the muscle cell, it should be noted as the thin filaments slide towards the centre; the z-disc to which they are attached to will be pulled toward the m-line. [9] In an overall look at contraction, the muscle cell contracts as do the i-bonds and the distance between consecutive z-discs is reduced and the h-zones vanish, moving the contiguous a-bonds closer together; however, they do not change in length. (Marieb Hoehn, 2010, p. 284) Task 6b Direct Phosphorylation The demand for ATP rises as we begin vigorous exercise, within a few contractions stored ATP is consumed, creatine phosphate is then used to egenerate ATP and this process is ongoing while the metabolic pathways acclimatize to the bodies demand for increased ATP. Pairing CP with ADP results in an almost instantaneous energy transfer, and a phosphate group to form ATP from the CP to ADP. Two to three times as much CP as ATP is stored in muscle cells, the CP-ADP feedback is incredibly efficient and the volume of ATP in muscle cells does not change by much during the preliminary contraction phase. Maximum muscle power can be provided for 14-16 seconds using stored CP and ATP, this is roughly long enough to invigorate muscle for a 100-metre surge; this reaction is reversible and CP resources are refilled during rest periods. [10] (Marieb Hoehn, 2010, pp. 298-99) Anaerobic Pathway More ATP is engendered by catabolism as stored ATP and CP are expended; this catabolism of glucose is through the blood or from glycogen stored in muscle, glycolysis is the opening phase of glucose breakdown, glycolysis occurs in both the presence and absence of oxygen; however, it does not use oxygen and is therefore anaerobic. Glucose is destroyed to form two pyruvates during glycolysis, this releases enough energy to form some ATP (two ATP per glucose); usually, pyruvate manufactured would then enter the mitochondria and reacting with oxygen would provide even more ATP using the aerobic pathway. Vigorous muscle contraction at about 70% causes the bulging muscles to compress blood vessels, thus impairing blood flow and oxygen delivery. During these anaerobic conditions, the majority of pyruvate produced is transformed into lactic acid, this process is referred to anaerobic glycolysis. Anaerobic glycolysis yields around 5% of the ATP produced via the aerobic pathway from each glucose molecule, however it produces ATP about 2. 5 times faster than the aerobic pathway. [11] (Marieb Hoehn, 2010, pp. 298-99) Aerobic Pathway Ninety-five percent of ATP used for muscle activity during moderate exercise and rest is produced via the aerobic respiration pathway. Occurring in the mitochondria, aerobic respiration requires oxygen and encompasses a series of chemical reactions. During these reactions, the links of fuel molecules are destroyed liberating energy for ATP production. Glucose is broken down utterly to yield water, CO2 and great quantities of ATP, diffusing out of muscle tissue into the blood; the lungs remove CO2. With the onset of exercise, glycogen stored in the muscles provides a large amount of the fuel, briefly, after this circulating glucose, pyruvate and free fatty acids are the main source of fuel, roughly 30 minutes after this fatty acids will be the main energy source. Aerobic glycolysis provides a great deal of ATP (32), but is slow due to its numerous steps; it also requires a constant supply of oxygen and nutrients to continue. [12] (Marieb Hoehn, 2010, pp. 298-99) [pic] References Marieb, E. N. Hoehn, K. , 2010. Bones and Skeletal Tissue. In A. Wagner, ed. Human Anatomy Physiology. 8th ed. San Francisco: Pearson International Ltd. pp. 185-86. Marieb, E. N. Hoehn, K. , 2010. Bones and Skeletal tissue. In A. Wagner, ed. Human Anatomy Physiology. 8th ed. San Francisco: Pearson International Ltd. pp. 199,216. Marieb, E. N. Hoehn, K. , 2010. Bones and Skeletal Tissue. In A. Wagner, ed. Human Anatomy Physiology. 8th ed. San Francisco: Pearson International Ltd. pp. 223,233,237. Marieb, E. N. Hoehn, K. , 2010. Covering, Support and Movement of the Body. In A. Wagner, ed. Human Anatomy and Physiology. 8th ed. San Francisco: Pearson International Ltd. p. 284. Marieb, E. N. Hoehn, K. , 2010. Covering, Support and Movement of the Body. In A. Wagner, ed. Human Anatomy Physiology. 8th ed. San Francisco: Pearson International Ltd. pp. 225-226,233,267. Marieb, E. N. Hoehn, K. , 2010. Muscles and Muscle Tissue. In A. Wagner, ed. Human Anatomy and Physiology. 8th ed. San Francisco: Pearson International Ltd. pp. 298-99. Marieb, E. N. Hoehn, K. , 2010. The Muscular System. In A. Wagner, ed. Human Anatomy Physiology. 8th ed. San Francisco: Pearson International Ltd. p. 321. Marieb, E. N. Hoehn, K. , 2010. The Vertebral Column. In A. Wagner, ed. Human Anatomy Physiology. 8th ed. San Francisco: Pearson International. pp. 217, 243-244. NHS , 2011. Osteoporosis – Treatment. [Online] Available at: HYPERLINK â€Å"http://www. nhs. uk/Conditions/Osteoporosis/Pages/Treatment. aspx† http://www. nhs. uk/Conditions/Osteoporosis/Pages/Treatment. aspx [Accessed 13 May 2011]. NHS, 2011. Vitamins and Minerals – Calcium. [Online] Available at: HYPERLINK â€Å"http://www. nhs. uk/Conditions/vitamins-minerals/Pages/Calcium. aspx† http://www. nhs. uk/Conditions/vitamins-minerals/Pages/Calcium. aspx [Accessed 13 May 2011]. Todd, J. A. Robinson, R. J. , 2003. Osteoporosis and Exercise. Postgrad Medical Journal, 4(79), pp. 320-23. USA. Gov, 2011. Vitamin D. [Online] Available at: HYPERLINK â€Å"http://ods. od. nih. ov/factsheets/VitaminD-HealthProfessional/† http://ods. od. nih. gov/factsheets/VitaminD-HealthProfessional/ [Accessed 13 May 2011]. Pictures/Figures http://samedical. blogspot. com/2010/07/contraction-of-skeletal-muscle. html (Figure 6. 1/6. 2/6. 3/6. 4/6. 5) http://i. acdn. us/image/A2868/286833/ 300_286833. jpg (Figure 7. 1) http://www. mindfiesta. com/images/article/Respiration_clip_image001. gif (Figure 7. 2) ———————– [1] http://www. gpnotebook. co. uk/simplepage. cfm? ID=-1979318262linkID=32590cook=no [2] Per day of both supplements. [3] See figure 3. 1, pictures A B [4] See figure 3. 1, pictures C D [5] See figure 3. 1, pictures E, I F 6] See figure 6. 3 (Page 13) [7] See figure 6. 2 (Page 13) [8] See figure 6. 1 (Page 12) [9] See figure 6. 1 [10] See figure 7. 1 [11] See figure 7. 2 [12] See figure 7. 2 ———————– Monday, 22 April 2013 Figure 3. 1 Task 3b A. Skull (Fibrous) B. Ankle – Tibiofibular/Distal (Synovial/Fibrous) C. First rib/Sternum (Cartilaginous) Hyaline Cartilage D. Vertebrae (Cartilaginous) Fibrocartilage E. Pubis (Cartilaginous) Fibrocartilage F. Scapula/Humerus (Synovial) G. Humerus/Ulna Radius (Synovial) Hyaline cartilage H. Intercar pal (Cartilaginous) Plane joint/Nonaxial A C F G D E H B Figure 6. 1 Figure 6. 3 Figure 6. 2 Figure 7. 2 Figure 7. 1 How to cite Skeletal, Muscular Articular Systems, Papers

The 300 Spartans Was It A Reliable free essay sample

The 300 Spartans. Be It A Reliable Source Of Historical Information? Essay, Research Paper The movie The 300 Spartans is the narrative of the Battle of Thermopylai, where the 300 strong personal guard of King Leonidas defended a mountain base on balls at Thermopylai so that Xerxes of Persia couldn T conquer Greece. Equally far as detailing how the events at Thermopylai went, The 300 Spartans was an accurate movie. In existent life, Leonidas and his work forces held the Persians back for two yearss, after which, they were sold out by a local Greek named Ephialtes. In the film, Ephialtes is rejected by a Spartan adult females, which gives him the motive to take the Immortals through the abandoned caprine animal path. Whether this was really his ground for assisting Xerxes is irrelevant, as it likely isn T mentioned in any history books. It besides adds a little more involvement to the movie for those who saw it for grounds other than watching work forces hack into each other with blades. We will write a custom essay sample on The 300 Spartans Was It A Reliable or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page When intelligence of the Immortal s back door onslaught became evident, the Athenians were ordered to withdraw. Merely the Boiotians aided Leonidas and his work forces ( the existent Spartan ground forces were sent merely every bit far as the Isthmus of Corinth ) . This was included in the movie non merely because it was historically right, but besides because it made the out numbered side seem more heroic. The Boiotians were defeated foremost, so the King was killed in conflict. His now unemployed personal guard formed a protective circle around his cadaver, where they are eventually finished off with pointers. As a beginning of historical information, The 300 Spartans isn T every bit accurate as you might trust. The Spartans, in existent life, fought their conflicts i n the nude ( with the exclusion of a little sum of armour ) . In the movie, nevertheless, the soldiers are to the full clothed, as are the adult females back place ( they excessively wore few garments ) . This error is apprehensible, as no production company, now or so, would finance and let go of a mainstream film where half of the supernumeraries, every bit good as cardinal characters, are running about naked ( good fortune happening the histrions, excessively ) . Besides absent was the fact that the Spartan work forces were bi-sexual. Such a movie could be made presents, but at that place would still be an tremendous recoil against it from conservative groups. They could ve at least used Grecian histrions. The difference in disposition between the two rival leaders was excessively large to be realistic. Xerxes was shown to hold been the most black hearted adult male around, and even though he was a average individual, he likely wasn t every bit evil as he was made out to be. Leonidas had the opposite job of being excessively screaky clean, but that mistake was common in all of the films made in the 1960ss. Spartan outlook was exhibited magnificently. The discredited soldier would instead hold thrown himself from a drop than go forth his male monarch. At the terminal, Xerxes promised that if the staying warriors surrendered Leonidas organic structure, they would be spared. Of class, they declined, taking to decease by his side instead than return place defeated. In my sentiment, the Spartans would ve tested to take out every bit many Persians as possible before being killed, and non hold juste stood there to be shot at. In decision, The 300 Spartans portrayed the major events at the Battle of Thermopylai really good. Unfortunately, it wasn t a really dependable beginning of historic information.

The Apology Of Socrates--Themes Death Sophists Ignorance Essays

The Apology Of Socrates--Themes Death Sophists Ignorance The Apology of Socrates In Athens between 429?347 B.C. a trail took place against Socrates where Plato made a speech in front of a council of 500 members. Plato wrote the Apology because Socrates was sentenced to death for dissuasion against state religion and corrupting young people. In the beginning, it seems like he is trying to split his accusers into two groups (old and new) to show that he has been accused many years of his life and the new accusers should be the only ones looked at because the old accusers did not appear in court. He was also allowed to cross-examine his accusers and make his own defense (Mack 502). Usually, at that time in Athens, the accusers say what they wanted the sentence to be and if it was death, it was natural for the accused to ask to be banished. However, he refused to disobey laws and already said that he did not want to live in another foreign country (Mack 499). Socrates focused mainly on themes of interest are ignorance, death and sophistry. Sophists were traveling teachers that sold their services to rich parents and promised to teach their kids important things that would help them advance in life. They are defined as ?men of wisdom? and that is exactly what Socrates tried to distinguish himself from (Allen 39-40). It seems that sophists can make humans great because there was an example given by Socrates that said ?if your two sons were colts and calves, we could get an overseer for them and hire them and he would be either a horse-trainer or a farmer (Allen 40).? Socrates denies the knowledge of having human excellence and claims to only have a certain type of wisdom and he never did charge for his services. So overall, Socrates identifies himself as an anti-sophist, although some of his techniques are suggestive of otherwise. The second most stressed theme would be the term ignorance. Socrates frequently confesses that he is ignorant (Allen 40-42). Socrates says that he only has ?human wisdom? and he claims that he knows that he is not wise: ?I know that I am not wise at all; what then does God mean by saying I am wisest In the oracle's saying, ?no one is wiser than Socrates (Allen 40-44).? Socrates knows that he is not wise and doubts what the oracle says and sets out to test it. He sets out to find someone that is wiser than he is. First, he went looking among the politicians and philosophers and then he found out that poets were the worst interpreters of their own writing and therefore was not wiser than he was (Allen 41-42). He finds someone who is wise and he thinks that the person is wise also but it turns out that the man was not wise at all and by unrevealing that he is not lead to a bad reputation and hatred of Socrates. Then he says that he is much wiser than the man is because he does not prete nd to possess much knowledge so in other words his wisdom lies in acknowledging his own ignorance. Socrates sums his theory up by saying that the oracle was right and that human wisdom is worth ?little or nothing (Allen 43).? The oracle intended to apply, not to Socrates, but to all men who knew that their wisdom is worth nothing (Allen 43). The third most stressed theme is death. This began with Meletus (second class of accusers) saying that Socrates is an atheist and he was corrupting the youth: ?I mean that. You acknowledge no gods at all (Allen 47).? Meletus goes on how that Socrates is an atheist and says, ?not when he says the Sun is a stone and the Moon earth? which means Meletus has confounded Socrates with Anaxagoras, which said these things (Allen 47). Therefore, Socrates put Meletus down and said no one should believe him and that Meletus probably cannot even believe in himself: ?You cannot be believed, Meletus?even, I think, by yourself? (Allen 47). Someone asked Socrates ?Are you ashamed that now you may be put to death? and he had a reply

Battle of Verdun in World War I

Battle of Verdun in World War I The Battle of Verdun was fought during World War I (1914-1918) and lasted from February 21, 1916 until December 18, 1916. The longest and largest battle fought on the Western Front during the conflict, Verdun saw German forces attempt to gain the high ground around the city while drawing the French reserves into a battle of annihilation. Striking on February 21, the Germans made early gains until increasing French resistance and the arrival of reinforcements turned the battle into a grinding, bloody affair. Fighting continued through the summer and saw the French commence counterattacks in August. This was followed by a major counteroffensive on October which ultimately reclaimed much of the ground lost earlier in the year to the Germans. Ending in December, the Battle of Verdun soon became an iconic symbol of French resolve to defend their country. Background By 1915, the Western Front had become a stalemate as both sides engaged in trench warfare. Unable to achieve a decisive breakthrough, offensives simply resulted in heavy casualties with little gain. Seeking to shatter the Anglo-French lines, the German Chief of Staff Erich von Falkenhayn began planning a massive assault on the French city of Verdun. A fortress town on the Meuse River, Verdun protected the plains of Champagne and the approaches to Paris. Surrounded by rings of forts and batteries, Verduns defenses had been weakened in 1915, as artillery was shifted to other sections of the line (Map). Despite its reputation as a fortress, Verdun was selected as it was located in a salient in German lines and could only be supplied by a single road, the Voie Sacrà ©e, from a railhead located at Bar-le-Duc. Conversely, the Germans would be able to attack the city from three sides while enjoying a much stronger logistical network. With these advantages in hand, von Falkenhayn believed that Verdun would only be able to hold out for a few weeks. Shifting forces to the Verdun area, the Germans planned to launch the offensive on February 12, 1916 (Map). The Late Offensive Due to poor weather, the attack was postponed until February 21. This delay, coupled with accurate intelligence reports, allowed the French to shift two divisions of the XXXth Corps to the Verdun area prior to the German assault. At 7:15 AM on February 21, the Germans commenced a ten-hour bombardment of the French lines around the city. Attacking with three army corps, the Germans moved forward utilizing storm troopers and flamethrowers. Staggered by the weight of the German attack, the French were forced to fall back three miles on the first day of fighting. On the 24th, troops of XXX Corps were compelled to abandon their second line of defense but were buoyed by the arrival of the French XX Corps. That night the decision was made to shift General Philippe Petains Second Army to the Verdun sector. Bad news for the French continued the next day as Fort Douaumont, northeast of the city, was lost to German troops. Taking command at Verdun, Petain reinforced the citys fortifications and laid out new defensive lines. On the final day of the month, French resistance near the village of Douaumont slowed the enemy advance, allowing the citys garrison to be reinforced. Changing Strategies Pushing forward, the Germans began to lose the protection of their own artillery, while coming under fire from French guns on the west bank of the Meuse. Pounding German columns, French artillery badly bled the Germans at Douaumont and ultimately forced them to abandon the frontal assault on Verdun. Changing strategies, the Germans began assaults on the flanks of the city in March. On the west bank of the Meuse, their advance focused on the hills of Le Mort Homme and Cote (Hill) 304. In a series of brutal battles, they succeeded in capturing both. This accomplished, they began assaults east of the city. Focusing their attention on Fort Vaux, the Germans shelled the French fortification around the clock. Storming forward, German troops captured the forts superstructure, but a savage battle continued in its underground tunnels until early June. As the fighting raged, Petain was promoted to lead the Centre Army Group on May 1, while General Robert Nivelle was given command of the front at Verdun. Having secured Fort Vaux, the Germans pushed southwest against Fort Souville. On June 22, they shelled the area with poison diphosgene gas shells before launching a massive assault the next day. French General Philippe PetainGeneral Robert Nivelle30,000 men (Feb. 21, 1916) Germans Erich von FalkenhaynCrown Prince Wilhelm150,000 men (Feb. 21, 1916) Casualties Germany - 336,000-434,000France - 377,000 (161,000 killed, 216,000 wounded) French Moving Ahead Over several days of fighting, the Germans initially had success but met increasing French resistance. While some German troops reached the top of Fort Souville on July 12, they were forced to withdraw by French artillery. The battles around Souville marked farthest German advance during the campaign. With the opening of the Battle of the Somme on July 1, some German troops were withdrawn from Verdun to meet the new threat. With the tide stemmed, Nivelle began planning a counter-offensive for the sector. For his failure, von Falkenhayn was replaced by Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg in August. On October 24, Nivelle began attacking the German lines around the city. Making heavy use of artillery, his infantry was able to push the Germans back on the east bank of the river. Forts Douaumont and Vaux were recaptured on October 24 and November 2, respectively, and by December, the Germans had been nearly forced back to their original lines. The hills on the west bank of the Meuse were retaken in a localized offensive in August 1917. Aftermath The Battle of Verdun was one of the longest and bloodiest battles of World War I. A brutal battle of attrition, Verdun cost the French an estimated 161,000 dead, 101,000 missing, and 216,000 wounded. German losses were approximately 142,000 killed and 187,000 wounded. After the war, von Falkenhayn claimed that his intention at Verdun was not to win a decisive battle  but rather to bleed the French white by forcing them to make a stand at a place from which they could not retreat. Recent scholarship has discredited these statements as von Falkenhayn attempting to justify the campaigns failure. The Battle of Verdun has assumed an iconic place in French military history as a symbol of the nations determination to defend its soil at all costs.

Smith and Marx Document Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Smith and Marx Document Analysis - Essay Example The Wealth of Nations (1776) composed by Adam Smith is a historical text which advances the idea of capitalism. Capitalism sets the foundation for America’s government and economy. Adam Smith’s view is to encourage a liberalization of the world market with no barriers to trade. Smith lives and writes The Enlightenment period of world history during which the light of reason shines. Revolutions are being kindled; old social orders are being done away and free-thinkers emerge with new perspectives. Regimes such as aristocracy, monarchy and feudalism begin to experience the action of undermining and another group is surging into power, the nouveau-riches – a people who earn fortunes from industry. Absolute control is no longer pleasing to the enlightened ear. Instead, independence obtains wide currency. According to the Communist Manifesto, the essence of history comprises of class struggle. Marx and Engels commence with the statement that "the history of all hitherto existing societies is the history of class struggles." The Marxist document launches into a narrative explaining that from the dawn of Greco-Roman civilization to the time of the manifesto’s publication, history has its roots deep in the conflict of dual ideologies. One dominant camp, â€Å"the oppressor,† seeks to retain a monopoly on wealth and power; whereas the recessive consisting of â€Å"the oppressed† serves to fulfill the interests of the powerful. The divergence of ideas engenders both overt and subtle war between ruling and servant classes. Again,  Marx  and Engels reiterate that â€Å"the history of all past society has consisted in the development of class antagonisms† (The Communist Manifesto). The pyramidal structure or gradation of society remains as a threat to harmony among social classes. From antiquity to modernity, the dichotomous conflict with respect to class

Inherited and Environmental Influences on Development Essay

Inherited and Environmental Influences on Development - Essay Example According to the findings, Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Model (1979) explains that the behavior and development of an individual is an interplay of the individual’s biological and personality factors, his environment and the society and culture he was born into. Bronfenbrenner also claims that effects of interactions between the individual and his environment are two-directional or characterized by reciprocity. This means that while a child’s development is influenced and molded by his family, school and peers, he likewise influences and molds the behavior of others. The growing child moves through five systems that inter-relate and affect his development. The most basic of which is the microsystem, where direct contacts between the child and his immediate surroundings result in behaviors such as dependence or independence and cooperation or competition. An example of this is the home base of the child and his relationship with his family. The pure culture of the society this family lives in greatly influences how this family lives and how the child imbibes the culture as he expresses it in his developing personality. The mesosystem comprises the linkages and processes that take place between two or more settings with the child in common. A perfect example is how learning in school is supported by follow up lessons in the home. The third level comprising linkages and processes taking place between two or more settings is the exosystem. This includes at least one setting that does not directly involve the child but still influences the processes within the immediate setting of the child. An example is the parent’s occupation. The workplace of this parent does not contain the child, but processes at work may affect his development such as the hours spent there by the parent may affect the parent-child bond. The fourth system is the macrosystem which includes the customs, values, and laws considered important in the child’s culture and u pbringing. A child from another culture may celebrate special customs and traditions from his culture apart from the special occasions celebrated in his host country. Lastly, the chronosystem in Bronfenbrenner's Ecological model refers to the time that transpires as the child relates in his various environments. An example is a change that happens to the child while he grows up moving from one system to another, like the westernization of the values of a child originally from an Asian culture. This ecological model implies that the interplay and quality of the various systems and environments of the child will play different roles in influencing his development. Likewise, whatever comes out of that development will affect the various environments the child belongs to. For instance, the free expression of his culture may lead to environments being more accepting of it.

Socrates - A Great Teacher Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Socrates - A Great Teacher - Essay Example Therefore, the society in which Socrates lived was the perfect place for his kind of philosophy, which was centred on the idea of teaching about the power of humanity and human law and justice rather than the wrath or benevolence of the Gods. I feel that I can learn from this because even though I am a person who has religion, I think it is important to focus on humanity as well as God. Socrates believed in superhuman power but equated it directly with humanity. The philosopher recognized that his actions were in some way controlled by the moral hesitation that preceded them or the moral retribution that followed them if they were negative. He thought that the voice inside of him that caused him to stop and reflect before performing a certain action was divine, and I think that this is a good lesson to learn and apply in everyday life, by following my conscience. Socrates saw the human conscience as a gift from the gods and therefore continued an expanding humanist tradition in his s ociety by relegating more and more power to humanity as being inspired by the Gods, rather than being directly and explicitly controlled, monitored, punished, and rewarded by them. I think that I can learn from Socrates’ humanism, because he can teach people to be good, and he seems to have good expectations for society. I want to learn this kind of optimism and apply it to my own life. More and more throughout his life, Socrates began to see that goodness was not a reflection of divine destiny or a means to personal advancement, but was inspired by a sense of universal justice. To Socrates, being just to all meant goodness. This reflects the sense of fairness or balance that was a central feature in Socrates’ philosophy, which can be compared to some of the Stoics’ argumentative and unbalanced polemical perspectives previously. I agree that fairness and justice are important things. Most important, Socrates is a great teacher, because he teaches his students  to question.

The Importance, Benefits and Issues of Budgeting

The Importance, Benefits and Issues of Budgeting Introduction This report is aimed to evaluate the importance of budgeting, analysis the benefits and problems that brought by budgeting and also discusses the behavioral aspects of budgeting. A budget is a comprehensive, formal, coordinated, detailed, quantitative plan that estimates the probable expenditures for acquiring and using financial and other resource for an organization over a specific time period (Margaret, George, 2011). Budgeting describes the overall process from preparing budget, using budgets during the business operation, and later performance evaluation. It provides us the valuable tools for planning and control of finances and affects nearly every type of organization-from governments and large corporations to small businesses-as well as families and individuals. A small business generally engages in budgeting to determine the most efficient and effective strategies for making money and expanding its asset base. Budgeting can help a company use its limited financial and human resources in a manner which best exploit existing business opportunities such production expansion and acquisition that might otherwise miss. A good and through understanding of how budgeting works is a must for ambitious business executive if he or she wants to run the business with flying colors. What is more, budgeting give access to business owners who intend to assess the managers performance during a specific time assigned. It is of great importance because the managers compensation is quite often tied with his or her performance during the time in charge. There are different kinds of budgets fall into various categories. The financial budget (Genrad, et al., 2002) includes the capital expenditure budget, which presents a companys plans for financing its operating and capital investment activities. The capital expenditure budget relates to purchases of plant, property, or equipment with a useful life of more than one year. On the other hand, the cash budget, the budgeted balance sheet, and the budgeted statement of cash flows deal with activities expected to end within the 12-month budget period. Last but not the least, companies sales departments are often responsible of making sales budget based mainly on their products selling experience last year and future economic conditions. The budget is developed within the framework of a sales forecast that shows potential sales for the industry and the companys expected sales. Benefits of Budgets With careful planning and good execution, a company can reap the benefits of having budgets in many ways, including: Communication of corporate goals Modern corporations consist of departments of different important functions. It is quite hard for the chief executive officer to convey the corporate goals to each employee very well. But on the other hand, in order for corporation to reach its best performance, it is indispensable for employees in different positions within a corporation to understand the corporate goals. The process of preparing budgets actually constructively bridges this communication gap because it engages everyone from managers to front-line staff. Quite often in practice, an CEO will hold a budgets discussion meeting that managers of various departments will come and discuss the companys whole budgets and make adjustments according to next years goal. In this way, budgeting comes a communication tool because the different departments get the chance to take part in future planning and discuss the priorities for where the money and resources should be most suitably spent and allocated. More importantly, the act of making estimates about future economic conditions and about the companys ability to respond to them, forces managers to synthesize the external economic environment with their internal goals and objectives. This whole communication process is extremely crucial given the consideration of the complexity of business in recent years. Warning of potential problems Keeping budgets and constantly comparing it with the running of the real operating acts as an early warning system of potential problems which the management people in charge can make changes before things get out of control which make the company suffer greatly in terms of money and resources. In this way, when a flag is raised, managers in charge can revise their immediate plans such as to change a product mix, revamp an advertising campaign, or borrow money to cover cash shortfalls. Coordination of different segments Having the different departments within the corporation to create budgeting together is the key to resolving the differences and conflicts between various departments when involves in money and resources handling. Often in practice, the chief executive officer asks departments of various functions to make their own department budgets first according to each departments needs and its specific goal next year. Throughout this process, each department correlates each segments goals with corporate objectives. Preparation of a budget assumes the inclusion and coordination of the activities of the various segments within a business. The budgeting process demonstrates to managers the inter-connectedness of their activities and offers them directions to follow. Evaluation of actual performance The budget provides definite objectives for evaluating performance at each level of responsibility assigned (Jan, et al., 2008). Managers in charge are able to have access to do quick and easy performance evaluations with previous established criteria. With the economic conditions rapidly changing, managers may increase activities in one area where results are well beyond their exceptions. In situation like this, budgeting maximizes the objectivity to a great extent and offers a helpful hand for managers in making sound judgments with some indicators to compare. In other situations, managers may need to refer some measurement to reorganize activities whose outcomes demonstrate a consistent pattern of inefficiency, so that they can make timely adjustments to minimize the loss that otherwise might incur. Problems of Budgets As one of the most important steps in running a successful business, there is also some problems that involves with the budgets, including: Overstating projections Companies with strong ambitious of achieving success usually tend to think that their business will do a huge amount of business in a short amount of time which sometimes could be not very realistic in practice. So in this case, they often inflate the budgeted sales figure with possibly wrong sales forecasts. The overstating sales projections resulted from over optimistic future sales predictions most of the time will lead to other financial budgets such as cash flow budget, income statement budget, and balance sheet budget not reflecting the reality. Lack of fairness in funds allocation When asked to their own budget, different departments often have a tendency to ask more than they need to provide buffer in case unforeseen things that might happen in the future, so that they will not be under budget. This tendency prevent the funds to be allocated to the companys best interest and distorts the real needs and makes the next year funds allocation somehow lack of the fairness it should have, especially for corporations which is at the growing stage when the funds is extremely precious and limited. What is worse, when it comes to the using the budgets, the majority of departments will tend to squeeze the use of the budget at the beginning of the period to save for the later use, while try everything they can to use up the rest of the budget by the end of the period. This lack of consistency in usage actually further wastes the companys resources and money, which is likely lead to inconsistency of the goods and services that the company provides. Lack of operation flexibility While sticking to the budgets provides a roadmap for the running of operation, it can hinder creativity and flexibility of the companys development (Eugene, Michael, 2010). This situation arise often enough the managers cautiously and strictly enforce the operation in accordance with the budgets and give up some opportunity that might open doors to developing innovative products and exploring new markets. This is particularly true for those giant corporations where the managers are more willing to play it safe than taste a new flavor and usually lead them to only look at an annual plan therefore may fail to take a longer term view into account. Behavioral aspects of Budgeting Budgetary control relies greatly on the individuals of a corporation. The human aspect in the budgetary system can be very complicated since the budgetary process involves relationships between different people within the corporation which includes the chief executive officer, managers and staff. Some times budgets affect peoples behaviors and vice versa. Thus the behavioral aspects of budgeting are of vital significance and consist of many different areas that high attention must be paid. First and foremost, we need to know the Factors affecting behavior of budgeting, including: Budgets perceived by employees as being too difficult In situations that lack full participation of all levels in preparing for the budgets, the employees will perceive the budgets as being too difficult to follow. In addition, the punishment that comes along from failing to meet what this budgeted has a tendency to encourage staffs attempts to beat the system. This greatly affects the employees enthusiasm for the job and can knock down their creativity and initiative which might lead to financial and nonfinancial loss for the corporation. In order to deal with this kind of situation, the managers in charge should maintain supportive and cooperative relationships with staff of all levels since it can leads to increase productivity and satisfaction which in turn can raise the working morale of staff. What is more, managers should try their best to make communication open without obstruction, which is extremely critical because the good communication in budgeting can act as a good delivery of corporate goals. Targets that do not provide any challenge In sharp contrast to the previous situation discussed just now, non-scientific and not reasonable budgeting could also result in having targets that do not provide any challenge which leads to no breakthroughs and developments. This happens more often than not when managers only emphasize on the financial goals which is quite detrimental to the realization of important non-financial goals. In order to fix this problem, managers should use the historical data as an important reference and try their best to gain a better understanding of the directions that the future economic conditions. Moreover, it is also of crucial importance for managers to identify the employees ability objectively and truly engage the staff in participation genuinely. Due to a tendency for individuals to become ego involved in decisions which they have contributed, only in this way, can the budgeted goal be set in a way that reflect the real conditions and performs guidance. Insufficient flexibility There are times when strong-minded managers strictly hold on to budgets and overlook the real actual operation performance. Confronted with this kind of situation, what a company should do is to adopt variance analysis in practice. It is encouraged for businesses regularly conduct variance analysis because this allows them to notice if financial plans are inaccurate and therefore make timely adjustments. On the other hand, if businesses fail to analyse variances on a regular basis they will not be aware of their financial performance compared to what is budgeted. Favorable variance is when revenues are greater than budgeted or costs are less than budgeted. In contrary, adverse variance is when revenues are less than budgeted or costs are greater than budgeted. By calculating variances through looking at costs and revenues, managers can make wise remedies to cope with the situation and keep the company running on the right track. Conclusion Budgeting is a very crucial process that can bring numerous benefits to the companies if be used wisely and correctly. These benefits includes: Communication of corporate goals, Warning of potential problems, Coordination of different segments, and Evaluation of actual performance. All of them will increase the managements ability to more efficiently and effectively deploy resources, and to introduce modifications to the plan in a timely manner. However, there are also problems of that might incur when the budgeting is not proper done. These problems includes: Overstating projections, Lack of fairness in funds allocation, and Lack of operation flexibility. In order to truly embrace the benefits of budgeting, managers really should study the behavioral aspects of budgeting.

Guns in the home :: essays research papers fc

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Statistics on the National Safe Kids Campaign Website reveals that â€Å"Americans possess nearly 200 million firearms, including 65 million handguns. Approximately one-third of families with children (representing more than 22 million children in 11 million homes) keep at least one gun in the home. Gun owners keep firearms in the home for hunting and recreation (60 percent) or for protection and crime prevention (40 percent)†. Although 40 percent seems to be on the minority, households with guns are at higher risk of homicide, and there are few beneficial effects of gun ownership; as a result, alternative methods for crime prevention and protection should be adopted.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The most startling examples of these risks usually involve children. Children are very curious and will stop at nothing to discover new ideas. When they play, it is normal for them to move about and find bits and pieces around the house. This innocent, normal behavior becomes dangerous when children start finding guns hidden or lying around. A typical story was told by the Physicians for Social Responsibility, an organization working together for nuclear disarmament, (PSR) when â€Å"three-year-old Billy Higgins sat in the corner of his parent’s bedroom, trembling and confused, a gun having just gone off in his hand. His 2 year old sister, Anne Marie, lay motionless on her back, a small hole in her chest. While playing with his sister, Billy had found his father’s loaded handgun in a bedroom drawer. The father, John Higgins, never dreamed his small children were capable of finding or using his gun. He was wrong. And his daughter died†. ( "Billy Higgins†) Obviously, John Higgins thought that he had his gun only accessible to himself, and even if his kids found it, they would not be able to shoot it. However, the National Safe Kids Campaign website shows that â€Å"Children as young as age 3 are strong enough to pull the trigger of many of the handguns available in the United States†.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Not only are children at risk but also adults. A study by Arthur Kellerman shows that â€Å"the risk of homicide in the home is three times greater in households with guns.†(2) He implies that guns stored in the home are more often used to kill a familiar person than an intruder. Gun owners do not always know who they’re shooting when they pull the trigger, often the victim of this shooting is a family member.